Zebra

A running herd of zebra or giraffe generates propagated seismic waves which are distinctive at the species level and which could provide information to a predator at a distance.

From: Encyclopedia of Neuroscience , 2009

Infrared Thermography in Zoo and Wild Animals

Sabine Hilsberg-Merz , in Zoo and Wild Brute Medicine (6th Edition), 2008

Zebras

Zebras testify a unlike thermoregulation than giraffes in regard to the influence of the skin colour. Zebras are like to giraffes regarding influence of the sun. Nether the bright sun a zebra shows higher radiation over the blackness stripes versus the white stripes, as well every bit a more intermediate radiation over brownish stripes. Thus the hot blackness stripes show up in gray-coded thermograms every bit light areas, and the cooler white stripes appear as darker areas. In a Chapman zebra (Equus quagga chapmani) a maximum temperature of 71.9°C was measured on a sunny day of 22.viii°C ambience temperature and l% relative humidity. The boilerplate departure between black and white stripes was more than than xx°C under these conditions. More surprising were the findings in the various zebra species at different zoos during night investigations. With no influence of the sunday, the white stripes emitted more than radiation than the black stripes one (Figure 3-vi). This miracle is explained by Kingdom, eleven who found insulating fat layers nether the black stripes in plains zebras (Equus burchelli).

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/scientific discipline/article/pii/B9781416040477500063

Behavioral environmental of tropical animals

Daniel I. Rubenstein , in Advances in the Report of Behavior, 2010

C Pastoral Herders

Grevy'due south zebras living on pastoral lands potentially face many challenges. Understanding what these are and the degree to which they disrupt normal Grevy'southward zebra beliefs is difficult for noncommunity members to ascertain. Every bit a issue, we created a Grevy's zebra spotter program ( Low et al., 2009). Two women and one human from 8 communities were paid $3 per twenty-four hour period to record the number of Grevy's zebras seen while engaged in normal daily activities. For men this entailed herding livestock generally in the more open up areas of the group ranch. For women this meant walking through more wooded areas when collecting firewood and water. When zebras were seen, scouts recorded their location on manus-held GPS units. They as well recorded the abundance and activities (grazing, walking, or resting) of each age and sexual practice class, in addition to the openness of the habitat, the presence or absence of water by blazon and the identity of other wildlife and livestock species if they were within 100   thousand of the Grevy'south zebras. Once I received the data, I could assess what natural and anthropogenic factors influenced the spatial and temporal location and composition of Grevy's zebra herds.

Findings that herd size decreased equally the dry out season intensified matched previous observations on conservancies. Moreover, when experienced field workers compared their information on salvation zebras to lookout data, the concordance was loftier. Thus, when scout data revealed that herd sizes increased equally the day progressed (Fig. 15), when herd sizes generally remained abiding on conservancies, it became clear that zebra beliefs on grouping ranches appeared to be altered in meaning ways. Discussions at customs meetings revealed that pastoralists knew that their activities disrupted normal zebra activities. The pastoralists knew what the consequences would be—that the zebras would manufacturing plant around the water hole for much of the afternoon until the last of the herds departed for home and the safety of their bomas (corrals). Men also acknowledged that in the morning their dogs broke upward the large nighttime herds.

Fig. 15. The number of nonlactating females within herds increases as a function of time of day.

Fifty-fifty more interesting was the finding that no more than than 30% of the sightings of Grevy'south zebras cooccurred with livestock and that nonlactating females were seen least often in the presence of livestock (Fig. 16A). If we presume that livestock occupy the best grazing areas and that nonlactating females need the highest quality food to rebuild body status later on weaning, then limited access to the best grazing areas could prolong interbirth interval for these females. Since these are the females that will provide nigh of the recruits to sustain the population, this inability to graze with livestock could be a serious problem. Mayhap considering nosotros presented this hypothesis to the communities, within 12   months communities no longer harassed Grevy'south zebras and sightings of Grevy'southward zebras with livestock increased to l% (Fig. sixteenB). Since scouts piece of work ii days per calendar week, each spotter earns about $300 per year, which then often gets spread among relatives inside the community. For the start time wild animals is generating significant income to communities, income that would be hard to acquire in whatsoever other manner. Merely perhaps just as important is the empowerment that comes from gathering the data and owning the results, whether good or bad. As 1 sentinel noted "I now understand my zebras". It suggests that by converting individuals from beingness part of the problem to being role of the solution, it is possible to encourage people to modify the landscape in ways that enable wild animals to change their behavior so that survival prospects and fecundity are improved.

Fig. xvi. Percentage of sightings of Grevy'south zebras past scout patrols with livestock. (A) At the start of the scout programme in 2004. (B) Ane year after the start of the program and meetings with the community. (TM = Territorial males; BM = Available males; NLF = Non-lactating females; and LF = Lactating females).

Read total chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065345410420070

Assailment

Moira J. van Staaden , ... Roger T. Hanlon , in Advances in Genetics, 2011

A Cuttlefish agonistic bouts

In the Intense Zebra Display of the European cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis, the males turn on high-contrast stripes and night eye ring and extend their large 4th arm toward the opponent (Fig. 3.threeC ). Such agonistic encounters between males can pb to aggressive grappling and biting. The experiments of Adamo and Hanlon (1996) showed that 1 visual component of the brandish—the facial darkness—was by far the virtually highly variable in expression, and was a good predictor of outcome in encounters in which one male withdrew. In not-escalated encounters, the male that ultimately withdrew always maintained a less dark face up than its opponent (Fig. 3.threeA). When the face of a displaying cuttlefish became lighter, the other male either remained in the Intense Zebra Display but did not approach closely or lightened the intensity of its own display within 15   s. When both males maintained a nighttime confront, the agonistic encounters usually escalated to concrete pushing, and sometimes to grappling and bitter (Fig. 3.3B).

Figure iii.iii. Cuttlefish indicate intent to escalate a fight with a night confront component to their Intense Zebra Display. (A, B) Differences in facial darkness during a not-escalated versus escalated see. (C) Ii males in Intense Zebra Display with different degrees of facial darkness. (D) When males that lost a fight copulated with a female, they became more ambitious in the successive fight.

 From Adamo and Hanlon (1996).

Why would males prove an agonistic brandish to a rival male only simultaneously betoken their intent not to be aggressive? Adamo and Hanlon (1996) pointed out that sexual recognition in cephalopods is poorly developed, and that the Intense Zebra Display (with quaternary arm extended) identifies the signaler as a male. The authors suggest that male person cuttlefish that are non prepared to attack an opponent even so give the modified (i.e., light-faced) Intense Zebra Brandish to convey ii messages: (1) that it is male, but (2) information technology is non prepared to escalate to aggressive physical contact. As the authors point out, when agonistic displays perform more than one function, signaling intent (i.e., signaling its likely subsequent behavior) tin be an ESS. Unless the fight escalated to grappling and bitter, there would exist fiddling cost to cheaters in this system since males that bluffed (i.due east., gave a nighttime-faced Intense Zebra Brandish but had piffling fighting motivation and/or power) could withdraw at the adjacent stage of agonistic behavior with lilliputian penalty.

In the same study, the authors allowed losing males to copulate with a female person afterward a bout, and retested them with the male each had lost to. The onetime losers increased facial darkness dramatically in those encounters, showed a long-lasting Intense Zebra Display, and did non withdraw from an opponent (Fig. 3.3D), thus supporting the contention that facial darkness signals the beast'south motivational state (i.due east., trend to assail).

Read full affiliate

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/commodity/pii/B9780123808585000083

Equine dental evolution

Bruce J. MacFadden PhD, BS , in Equine Dentistry (3rd Edition), 2011

Equid interrelationships and phylogeny

Extant equids (horses, zebras, and asses) and fossil horses are classified in the family Equidae as part of the Gild Perissodactyla, or 'odd-toed ungulates.' Other perissodactyl families include tapirs (Tapiridae), rhinoceroses (Rhinocerotidae), and several extinct families. So far as is known, all perissodactyls are united by a suite of unique characters including a concave, saddle-shaped navicular (central tarsal) facet on the astragalus (talus 3 ), centrality of symmetry through the central metapodial (III), hind-gut fermentation, and particular cheek tooth cusp morphology. 2 Likewise, so far as is known, all perissodactyls living and extinct have been herbivores. With the exception of the extinct clawed chalicotheres, all perissodactyls have a foot terminating with an ungual phalanx that is either padded or hooved.

The 7–10 (i.e., depending upon classification) extant equine species can all be conservatively classified within the single modernistic genus Equus. iv In contrast to this single genus, virtually 32 extinct genera and more than than 150 species of fossil horses are recognized over the past 55 million years, 2 , v and these besides represent a far greater diversity of morphology and adaptations than is seen in modern Equus. Fossil horses are first known 55 meg years ago during the early Eocene throughout the northern continents (Fig. ane.1). 6 These are represented by Hyracotherium (or 'eohippus,' the dawn horse) and a solely Old World group, the palaeotheres (family Palaeotheriidae). 5 Horses persisted in North America later the Eocene, but this family unit and the horse-similar palaeotheres became extinct in the Former Globe by the early Oligocene, 29 million years ago. During the Oligocene and later times, the major evolutionary diversification of horses occurred in North America. Ancient dispersal events resulted in three-toed (tridactyl) horses immigrating into the Sometime World during the Miocene 23 one thousand thousand years ago (Anchitherium), 15 meg years ago (Sinohippus), and after 12 meg years ago (hipparions; Fig. 1.i). Extinct species of ane-toed (monodactyl) Equus, which first originated in North America 4.5 million years ago during the Pliocene, subsequently dispersed into the Former Earth across the Bering Land Span 3.v one thousand thousand years ago. seven During the Pleistocene afterwards about two million years ago, Equus species also dispersed into S America afterward the formation of the Isthmus of Panama. The genus Equus afterwards became extinct 10 000 years agone throughout the New World at the terminate of the terminal Ice Age (Pleistocene).

Read full chapter

URL:

https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702029806000015

Practical Nucleic Acid Hybridization

Robert Due east. FarrellJr. Ph.D , in RNA Methodologies (Fourth Edition), 2010

Case

An investigator may wish to screen a zebra library using a llama cDNA probe. It may well be that a related sequence does not be in the zebra genome. Alternatively, a similar sequence might exist nowadays but because of sequence divergence, the llama probe might not be able to hybridize stably under stringent hybridization conditions. To identify zebra sequences in a library that are related to the llama cDNA probe, or to further characterize such sequences by Northern analysis or Southern analysis, information technology would exist necessary to lower the stringency, equally discussed in Chapter 8, in order to hybridize based on partial complementarity.

Factors that influence the rate, specificity, fidelity, and probable utility of hybridization probes include, but are not limited to: temperature, ionic strength (primarily Na+), pH, the organic solvent formamide, urea, guanine and cytosine (G+C) content of probe, probe length, probe concentration, probe complexity (the total length of unlike probe sequences present during the hybridization), degree of complementarity betwixt probe and target sequences, the caste of mismatching, and the viscosity of the system. It is important to realize that the influence of each of these variables is also dependent on the mobility of the probe and target molecules, specifically (1) solution hybridization, where both probe and target molecules move randomly in an awarding-specific hybridization cocktail, as in the nuclease protection assays and PCR; or (2) mixed-phase hybridization in which the target sequences are immobilized on a solid support, every bit in Northern analysis.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123747273000139

Miscellaneous Parasitic Diseases

Heather Stockdale Walden , ... Debra C. Sellon , in Equine Infectious Diseases (2d Edition), 2014

Etiology and Life Cycle

Gastrodiscus aegyptiacus is an abdominal conical fluke of horses, zebras, pigs, and warthogs. It has been described in horses along the eastern half of Africa; even so, it is probable to be present throughout Africa where wet weather and a suitable intermediate host exist. It is particularly mutual in the Mashonaland expanse of Zimbabwe merely also occurs in South Africa, Swaziland, 199 the Okavango Delta of Botswana (also recorded from Burchell's zebra in this location [KMA van Laeren, personal communication]), and Sudan. 200 Isolated cases take been recorded in Federal democratic republic of ethiopia, 201 Malawi, and Tanzania (KMA van Laeren, personal advice). However, many equus caballus populations remain untested for its presence. It has been seen in horses in Guyana, South America, and in Cuba. 202 Information technology is also plant in India; a closely related species Gastrodiscus secundus, which infects equines and elephants, has also been found in India (RK Reinecke, personal advice).

Gastrodiscus spp. use snails (gastropods) every bit their intermediate hosts. Bulinus tropicus is incriminated in southern Africa, 203 whereas Bulinus forskalii is the prime host along the White Nile in Sudan. 200 Laboratory research has shown that Cleopatra spp., Melanoides tuberculata, Physa acuta, and Helisoma duryi are also susceptible. Notwithstanding, the latter two snails, which are exotic species to Africa (imported from North America), 204 showed high susceptibility, ranging from 96.6% to 100%. 203 This susceptibility highlights the possible spread of this parasite to other localities where potentially susceptible snails can deed as new intermediate hosts. H. duryi has been used in some areas as a biological competitor against the snail acting as the intermediate host to bilharzia in humans. 203 Achieving infection in a host of experimental snails, yet, does non necessarily imply that these snail species will play a major function in dissemination of cercaria under natural conditions. Only 12.v% of B. forskalii became infected under natural conditions in Sudan, 200 whereas B. globosus and Biomphalaria pfeifferi were resistant under laboratory challenge. 203

Just as Fasciola spp. (liver fluke) have developed in different snail species in Europe, North America, and Commonwealth of australia, Gastrodiscus has the power to infect and develop in a range of snails that are not the principal host. Gastrodiscus eggs excreted by an infected horse hatch into a miracidium. Nether laboratory conditions, this takes between 12 to fourteen days. The miracidium then penetrates susceptible snails, where they reproduce asexually into rediae (5 to 8 in the case of Fasciola but undetermined in the example of Gastrodiscus), daughter rediae, and finally, cercaria with an unforked tail (equally for Fasciola and Paramphistomes but contrary to the forked tails of Bilharzia cercariae). The prepatent period is 45 days for Melanoides tuberculata and 53 days for Cleopatra ferruginea; this menses for B. tropicus remains undetermined but is longer than 59 days. 203 Snails infected with two miricidia have been shown to produce as many every bit 70 cercaria per day for One thousand. tuberculata and five cercaria per snail per day in cases in which Cleopatra spp. are involved. These cercaria attach to blades of grass or other plant affair just below the surface of the water, and within a few hours, they shed their tails and encyst into dark, hemispheric cysts about 0.3 mm in diameter; this is the infective stage for horses. In Fasciola, some cysts live on the bottom of the bounding main 205 and tin can be consumed by drinking infected dam or stream water, but this has not been established in the instance of Gastrodiscus. In a unmarried case report in a donkey fed grass with encysted cercaria, the prepatent menses earlier the eggs were passed was 115 days.

The favored habitat for these snails is dams, river banks, and seasonally flooded, poorly drained lands with a resident snail population. Horses not exposed to these habitats are not infected past this Trematode.

The ingested cyst undergoes excystation in the stomach and undergoes its entire life bicycle in the cecum and large colon of its host. The adult parasite is a pink discoid structure (12 to xviii mm × 10 to 12 mm) with a conical head and rolled undersides. It can be likened to a miniature turtle-like parasite virtually the size of one'south small fingernail.

Read full affiliate

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/scientific discipline/article/pii/B9781455708918000609

Preservation of Genetics from Dead or Dying Stallions

JAMES K. GRAHAM , CLAIRE Menu , in Current Therapy in Equine Reproduction, 2007

Electroejaculation

Electroejaculation has been reported in sedated and anesthetized stallions and standing zebra stallions. The quality of the ejaculate obtained by this method has not been reported to exist every bit satisfactory as that obtained by chemical ejaculation or epididymal flushing. An reward of electroejaculation is that information technology may exist repeated more than once. one

The stallion should be heavily sedated or placed under general anesthesia. Manure should exist removed from the rectum. The stallion should be positioned in lateral recumbency. The semen collector should exist positioned along the back of the stallion reaching over to steady the penis. A yearling bull–sized probe should be lubricated and placed in the rectum with the electrical contacts facing ventrally. Beginning at the lowest power setting, intermittent electrical stimulation of 3 seconds on, 3 seconds off, using three repetitions at each power setting should be performed until a semen sample is obtained. There will exist involuntary leg motion associated with the periods of stimulation. The penis volition become erect.

This process may be coupled with castration to obtain feasible sperm just earlier euthanasia. The procedure carries the chance of rectal injury or rupture. Samples may not exist obtained from all stallions.

Read total chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780721602523500485

Sarcocystidae

Donald West. Duszynski , ... R. Scott Seville , in The Biological science and Identification of the Coccidia (Apicomplexa) of Carnivores of the Globe, 2018

Sarcocystis fayeri Dubey, Streitel, Stromberg, and Toussant, 1977b

Definitive host: Canis lupus familiaris (syn. C. familiaris) L., 1758, Dog.

Intermediate hosts: Equus burchellii burschelii Schinz, 1845, Burchell's Zebra; Equus burchellii chapmanni Layard, 1866, Burchell'south Zebra; Equus caballus 50., 1758, Horse; Equus hemionus Pallas, 1775 (syn. Equus onager Boddaert, 1785), Onager; Equus zebra 50., 1758, (syn. Equus hartmannae Matschie, 1898), Mountain Zebra.

Geographic distribution: Europe: Deutschland; Middle East: Turkey; North America: USA: Indiana, Ohio, Wisconsin. Probably worldwide in distribution.

Remarks: Levine and Ivens (1981) included this species and pointed out how little is known virtually it, since its discovery in Ohio, U.s.. Levine (1986) said that this species may plough out to exist a synonym of S. bertrami, and Odening (1998) agreed this species was quite similar to S. bertrami. Sarcocysts are found primarily in the skeletal muscles but rarely in the heart of infected horses. Odening (1998) said that South. fayeri probably also was found in the European hare, Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778, as per Odening et al. (1994c, 1996b) 1994c 1996b . Dubey et al. (2015a) provided some life cycle data on the endogenous development in horses. This species seems to be only mildly pathogenic in ponies and adults. Dubey et al. (2015a) briefly discussed the prevalence of natural infections and clinical affliction so summarized what piddling other information was available on Sarcocystis spp. in horses (their Table 11.ane).

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128113493000153

How to Pattern a Cerebral System: Introduction

Lionel Tarassenko , Richard Morris , in Cognitive Systems - Information Processing Meets Brain Science, 2006

Many of the intricate patterns seen in nature, such as the patterns of zebra stripes, the paths formed past social insects, cloud convection and snow-flake patterns, are examples of self-organization. Willshaw defines self-system as 'those aspects of organization that result from interactions betwixt the elements of the system as well as external influences that practise not themselves provide ordering data'. He identifies three forms of self-organization: self-organisation in development, self-organization as a complement to experiential changes and self-arrangement as a complement to harm. More than half of the affiliate is devoted to the first of these.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780120885664500039

Tetraparesis, Hemiparesis, and Ataxia

Michael D. Lorenz BS, DVM, DACVIM , ... Marc Kent DVM, BA, DACVIM , in Handbook of Veterinary Neurology (Fifth Edition), 2011

Pathophysiology

Equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy occurs in low-cal breeds of horses, convict Przewalski horses, zebras, and a few ruminant species. 212 The disease is characterized by astute, progressive, symmetric ataxia and paresis in young animals up to 24 months of age. Chronic progressive forms of the disease take been described. The illness has been diagnosed in Europe and Due north America, virtually normally in the northeastern United States. 213,214 Histopathologically, the affliction is characterized by diffuse myeloencephalopathy, with lesions in the spinal cord and brainstem of variable severity. 215 Degeneration of white matter occurs in all spinal cord funiculi and also involves the white thing in the sensory (proprioceptive) relay nuclei in the medulla oblongata, consisting of spheroid formation, astrogliosis, and axonal and myelin loss. Equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy is clinically indistinguishable from neuroaxonal dystrophy. Lesion distribution of NAD differs with its lesion confinement to the cuneate and gracilis nuclei in the brainstem. 216,217 A familial tendency to develop EDM has been observed in the Arabian, thoroughbred, Paso Fino, Appaloosa, and standardbred breeds and in some zebras. 218 A like, potentially familial, grade of neuroaxonal dystrophy is seen in Morgan horses. 211 The crusade of degenerative myeloencephalopathy is unknown just may involve a circuitous interaction of many factors. In other species, degenerative myeloencephalopathies with similar histologic findings take been linked to etiologies such as vitamin East and copper deficiencies, genetics, and toxins. Risk factors associated with EDM include use of insecticides, exposure to woods preservatives, and frequency of time spent on dirt with limited exposure to forages containing adequate vitamin E content. 219 Some studies showed prove of vitamin E deficiency, 218,220 but this finding has non been substantiated by others. 221 Consequently, the office of vitamin Eastward and other related cofactors in the development of EDM remains unclear. The disease must be differentiated clinically from NAD, cervical spondylomyelopathy, and protozoal myeloencephalitis.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/scientific discipline/article/pii/B9781437706512100074